- Settled hunter-gatherers and early agriculturalists
- Agriculture
- Agriculture requires year-round activities
- Agriculture provides a surplus of food
- Settled lifestyles and grains reduce infant mortality
- Emerging Political elite and power
- Military
- Religious
- Based on control of surplus
- Hydraulic Civilization Theory
- Control of irrigation
- Control of city and hinterland
- Areas easy to defend or with materials to construct defences
- Areas with access to transportation
- Coastal
- Rivers
- Development of a complex economy
- Increased numbers of specialists
- Merchants (incipient middle class)
- Development of new agricultural practices and technology
- Larger surpluses
- Fewer farmers needed
- Increased urbanization
- Industrial Revolution
- Agricultural technology
- Jobs in cities
- Dependent upon efficiency
- Centrality
- Location relative to resources
- Transportation network
- Site
- Absolute location
- Situation
- Relative location
- Break-of-Bulk Points
- Location along a trade route where goods must be transferred from one carrier to another
- Ports, river crossings and head of navigation, borders, transportation hubs, etc…
- Basic Sector
- Population producing goods and services for regions surrounding or outside of the urban area
- Bring money from the periphery/hinterlands into the urban area
- Non-basic Sector
- Population producing goods and services for the urban area itself
- Redistribute urban wealth
- Numbers grow faster than basic personnel
- Overlap between sectors
- Produces a Multiplier Effect
- The more people involved in the basic sector the more people arrive to provide for non-basic needs
- Urban Classifications
- Manufacturing
- Retailing
- Wholesaling
- Transportation
- Government
- Cities generally have multiple functions
- Many cities specialize in one or more functions
- Functions
- Central Place
- Transport center
- Special functions
- Central Place Theory (see below)
- Urban Influence Zones
- The size of the area affected/controlled/influenced by one urban area and not another
- Dependent upon distance from the urban area
- Explains size and location of urban areas
- Concepts and assumptions
- Towns would develop to provide basic services for agricultural areas
- Agricultural population dispersed in an even pattern
- People would possess similar needs, wants, and income
- Each product or service requires a “threshold” number of people before it develops in an urban area
- Consumers go to the nearest location for goods and services
- Results
- Landscape can be divided up into hexagonal market areas
- A central place will be located at the center of each market area
- The size of the central place and its market area will be proportional to the goods and services offered at that central place
- Further Results
- Towns of similar size are generally evenly spaced across the landscape
- Larger towns are placed farther apart than smaller ones
- More small towns than large ones
- Spacing of towns is interdependent
- Removal or placement of a town requires entire system to readjust
- The higher the threshold for a good or service the farther (on average) the consumer must travel to get it.
- Cities form around and attract industry
- Population engaged in manufacturing/industry attracts service people
- Service population can overtake manufacturing in importance
- Post-Industrial society
- Urban areas as places from which control is exercised upon the hinterland
- Administration as a non-basic service
- Federal, state, metropolitan, and local governments
- Education Sector
- Primary, secondary, post-secondary, technical, professional
- Health Care Sector
- Entertainment Sector
- Ranking of urban areas
- Size
- Functional complexity
- Useful for regions with a long history of urbanization and complex economies
- Size of the city is determined by its relationship with the largest city
- Nth largest city will be 1/n the size of the largest city
- i.e. the 2nd largest city will be ½ the size of the largest city
- Less applicable to developing nations or those with Primate Cities
- A city which is far more than twice the size of any second ranked urban areas or with no second ranked cities
- Developed in
- Slowly changing in some nations
- Common as a colonial legacy
- Large urban centers
- Control points for international production, marketing, and finance
- Urban Area
- U.S. Census Bureau definition requires a population of greater than 2500 people
- City
- A multifunctional, nucleated settlement with a central business district and both residential and non-residential land uses.
- Determinations of “city” status depend upon local and national laws and traditions
- Population
- Mayors or city managers
- Letters of patent
- Presence of a cathedral
- Town
- A nucleated settlement that contains a central business district but that is smaller and less functionally complex than a city
- In
- Suburb
- Subsidiary area, a functionally specialized segment of a larger urban complex, dependent upon a larger urban area
- May develop into independent urban areas over time
- Generally an American creation
- Urbanized Area
- A continuously built-up landscape defined by buildings and population densities with no reference to political boundaries
- May contain a central city, suburbs, surrounding towns, etc…
- Metropolitan Area
- Large scale, functional entity
- May contain several urbanized areas but operates as an integrated economic whole
- The center of a city/urban area where economic business and cultural activities are focused.
- Within and surrounded by areas of high land value.
- High population densities and high accessibility
- Land Uses
- Residential Areas
- High, middle, and lower class areas
- Light manufacturing and wholesale industries
- Heavy manufacturing
- Industrial areas
- Land value and population density decrease as one moves away from the CBD
Concentric Zone Model
- Ernest Burgess – 1920’s
- Five Zones radiating outward from the CBD
- CBD
- Zone of Transition
- Stagnation, high-density, low-income slums and ghettoes
- Low-class/working-class residential
- Smaller, older homes on smaller lots
- Middle-class residential
- Upper-class residential
- Apply mainly to
- Does not apply to non-North American cities
- Homer Hoyt – 1930’s
- Urban areas grow along wedge-shaped sectors
- Focused on transportation arteries
- High-income housing focuses on access to transportation routes
- Surrounded by middle-class residential areas
- Low-income residential areas on outskirts
- Near to industrial areas
- Industrial areas focused on transportation lines as well
- Dynamic model
- Based on North American cities
- Application mainly to North and South American Cities
- Chauncy D. Harris and Edward L. Ullman – 1945
- Counters the CBD growth models
- Cities grow from by spreading from several connected nodes of growth
- Peripheral expansion lead to eventual coalescence along lines of juncture
- Developed in
- Attempt to model changes in North American urban areas since 1945
- Development of suburbia
- Supplements the previous models
- Focuses on the periphery of the city instead of the CBD
- Functions are determined by their relationships with other periphery functions and not the CBD
- Automobile
- Freeway system
- Replaced mass transit
- Allowed massive spatial expansion of urban areas
- Interstate Highway System
- Expanded urban areas/commuting zones out 20 to 30 miles
- 50 to 60 miles in
- Rise in individual home ownership
- Revolution in mortgage practices by the Federal Government
- Own free-standing home in suburbs instead of renting within the city
- Decreased work week
- More time at home
- More time to commute
- Uniform but spatially discontinuous housing developments beyond the boundaries of the older, central cities
- Unfocused sprawl since they were not tied to mass-transit routes
- Automobile
- Began in late 1940’s to early 1950’s
- Slowed during the 1970’s and resumed again in the 1980’s
- Affected by fuel prices
- Development of the Shopping Mall to provide services to suburban communities
- Relocation of industry to suburban locations
- Follow workforce
- Use of roads meant less dependence upon rail and water transportation
- Flexible truck transportation
- Service industries follow Base Sector
- Edge Cities (Joel Garreau)
- Development of Suburbs into smaller, independent urban areas surrounding the old city and CBD.
- It must have more than five million square feet (465,000 m²) of office space. This is enough to house between 20,000 and 50,000 office workers, as many as some traditional downtowns.
- It must have more than 600,000 square feet (56,000 m²) of retail space, the size of a medium shopping mall. This ensures that the edge city is a center of recreation and commerce as well as office work.
- It must be characterized by more jobs than bedrooms.
- It must be perceived by the population as one place.
- It must have been nothing like a city in 1960.
- Houston Edge Cities
- The FM 1960 Area
- Kingwood
- The Woodlands
- Uptown
- Westchase
- Greenspoint
- Sharpstown
- Megalopolis
- A continuously built-up region with many new centers that compete with the old CBDs.
- Rise of the
- Wealthier and better educated moved to suburbs
- Poor remained within the central cities
- Loss of revenue from taxes
- Loss of job opportunities
- Federal Housing Acts
- Beginning in the 1940’s
- Low income war housing and slum clearance
- Initially effective and well designed
- Late 1950’s – massive experiments with social engineering
- Massive slums
- Urban Decay
- Cities have centralized telecommunications links and access
- Access to skilled labor necessary for a Post-Industrial society
- Gentrification
- The rehabilitation of housing in deteriorated city areas by middle and upper income groups
- Tension between poor residents and incoming renovators
- Attractions of short commutes and non-homogenized lives
- Sports and convention facilities
- Smart Growth Programs
- Restrict urban sprawl
- Preserve green zones
- Development of brown and grey fields
- Former industrial areas
- People tend to cluster in areas with people of similar family and social status, and ethnicity
- Family Status
- As distance from CBD increases
- Average age of head-of-household declines
- Size of family increases
- Poverty and Gender in
- Central cities have more households headed by women than men
- Women constitute the majority of poor individuals
- The majority of the poor live in central cities
- Women and the poor depend more upon public transportation
- Minorities are more likely to use public transportation than whites
- Social Status
- Determined by income, education, occupation, and home value
- Low density residence indicates higher status
- Rise of gated communities to control access to areas to accepted social status
- Ethnicity
- Many times minority ethnic groups tend to cluster together
- Ethnicity tends to follow the patterns of family and social status
- Non-market controls by local and national governments to control use of land
- Zoning Ordinances
- Building, Health, and Safety Codes
- Designed to minimize incompatibilities
- Provide appropriate locations for public and private land use
- Many times used to exclude “undesirable” uses and people
- Classic examples of Primate Cities
- Compact Form
- Occupy less land area
- Focus on apartments and high residential density
- Lower skyline
- Historical structures of stone
- Pedestrian oriented
- Well developed network of public transportation
- Both within and between cities
- Historical Connections
- Narrow streets and older buildings
- Radial main streets leading from the CBD
- Greenbelts and Parks
- Very similar to Western European Cites
- Generally compact with high population density
- Sharp break at edge between urban and rural
- CBD focused on Governmental uses instead of markets
- Micro-Districts for residential population
- 10,000 to 15,000 people
- Generally self-sufficient
- Located adjacent to industrial areas
- Undergoing change
Canadian Cities
- A transition form between European and
- Higher population densities
- Well developed public transportation
- Urban sprawl and roads/streets to accommodate the automobile
- Focus remains on the CBD and not edge cities
- Latin American Model is commonly found
- Centered around a Central Business District and a Commercial Spine
- Elite Residential Zone anchored to the CBD and CS
- A Zone of Maturity consists of mainly middle-class housing
- A Zone of In-Situ-Accretion is a mix of middle and low income housing, generally thought of as a transitional area (moving either up on down)
- A Zone of Peripheral Squatter Settlements surrounds the city, made up of the millions of impoverished and unskilled workers and recent migrants to the city
- A center for the Informal Sector (Black Market)
- Outside of government control or enforcement
- Barrios or Favelas
- Squatter Settlements on unused land along highways, rail corridors, and riverbanks. Even poorer then those in the PSS.
- Cultural variations depend upon religions practiced, degree of colonial impact, etc…
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