Sunday, July 30, 2006

1303 Chapter 12 - Pacific Realm

Major Geographic Qualities
  • Largest in total area of all the Geographic Realms but smallest in land area of any of the Realms
  • Strongly affected by the UN Law of the Sea for protection over economic assets
  • A Highly Fragmented Realm
    • Melanesia
    • Micronesia
    • Polynesia
  • Comprised of High-Island and Low-Island cultures
  • Island of New Guinea contains over 80% of the Realm’s population
  • Strong U.S. influence in Micronesia
  • Struggle to maintain cultural continuity in the face of globalization in Polynesia

Regional Character of the Realm
  • Total land area is about 376,000 square miles (Texas + New Mexico)
  • Colonized by the French, British, and United States
  • Total population of about 9.2 million
  • Economy focused on Tourism with some minerals and fishing
  • Mix of political organizations
    • Independent States
    • Colonies
    • Dependencies
    • Administrative Units

Polynesian Navigation and Migration
  • NAVIGATING BY STAR PATHS:
    • On east-west courses navigators steered towards stars known to rise or set over their destination. Steering was adjusted to compensate for the leeway (side-ways drift) caused by the wind and current, the angle estimated form experience. To maintain this angle they guided on stars dead ahead, replacing them with others in the same path as the guiding stars rose to high to be useful or set below the horizon.
  • NAVIGATING BY ZENITH STARS:
    • Zenith stars for an island are those which seem to pass directly overhead. Such stars also appear to pass directly overhead on the same latitude at any position east or west of the that island. On north-south courses, a navigator who kept upwind of his destination until its zenith star was overhead could then turn downwind to make a landfall, The range of visual sighting could be broadened by taking wide tacks downwind. Höküle'a (Arcturus) is a zenith star for Hawai'i Island. A'a (Sirus) is a zenith star for Tahiti and Fiji.
  • NAVIGATING BY LANDMARKS:
    • Departing at sunset, navigators set their course to a known destination by alignment with landmarks. The drift of the vessel form that alignment might indicate the direction and strength of the current, later, he may pick up his bearing from a familiar star.
  • NAVIGATING BY ISLAND GROUPS:
    • Signs of unseen land expand low or obscured island targets by 25 or 30 miles. In island groups these extensions often overlap, forming broad targets. To find an island within a group, voyagers could aim for the approximate center of the group, then change course to specific destination after sighting a familiar island. Sailing from Ra'iatea to Rarotonga, navigators sighting any known landfall in the Cook Islands chain could then sail to a position for an accurate course to Rarotonga.
  • NAVIGATING BY OCEAN SWELL:
    • Prevailing winds or storms generate swells which pulse across the ocean for thousands of miles. Under overcast skies navigators could maintain their heading by keeping a constant ration between the amount of pitching or rolling induced by a dominant swell, holding direction until guiding stars became visible again.
  • NAVIGATING BY SEA COLOR AND THE SIGHTING OF FLOTSAM:
    • Sea color: A color change from the deep blue of the open sea to green may betray a familiar reef, enabling navigators to check their position.
    • Flotsam: Drifting wood or leaves betray land to windward, and drifting seaweed may indicate an upcurrent reef. A greenish tinge to the underside of a cloud reflects sunlight from a distant lagoon too far away to be seen.
  • NAVIGATING BY SWELL PATERNS:
  • A dominant swell bounces back form an island and bends around it, creating swell patterns which can be read to find an unseen landfall.
    • (A) main swell;
    • (B) reflected swell;
    • (C) refracted swell;
    • (D) shadow of turbulence.
  • NAVIGATING BY SIGHTING FISHING BIRDS AND CUMULUS CLOUDS:
    • Fishing birds heading out to sea at dawn or returning at dusk point the direction to their home island. Cumulus clouds generated by warm updrafts may rise high above an island, appearing stationary while fragments of the main cloud and scattered cumulus clouds drift away in the wind.

Maritime Boundary Concerns in the Realm
  • Countries separated by less than 24 miles of ocean have less than 12 mile territorial waters and must rely on Median Lines
  • Countries within 400 nautical miles have overlapping EEZ’s
  • Political changes on land prompt modifications to maritime boundaries
  • Natural resources fuel boundary disputes
  • Variations in extent of continental shelf

Regions of the Realm
  • Melanesia
    • West Irian, Papua New Guinea, Soloman islands, Vanatu, New Caledonia, Fiji
  • Micronesia
    • Palau, Federated States of Micronesia, Northern Mariana Islands, Republic of the Marshall Islands, Nauru, Western Kiribati, Guam
  • Polynesia
    • Kiribati, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Hawaii, Samoa, American Samoa, Tuvalu, Tonga, Eastern Polynesia

Melanesia
  • Most populous region
  • Papua New Guinea
    • Nearly 6 million people
    • 820 indigenous languages
    • 57% literacy rate
    • Religion
      • 34% Native Faiths
      • Remainder Christian
  • Solomon Islands
    • More than 1,000 islands
    • Population of approximately 500,000
      • Almost 95% Melanesian
    • More than 120 languages
  • New Caledonia
    • Still under French Rule until after 2014
      • Slow devolution of power to local government
    • Just over 200,000 people
      • 42.3% Melanesian
      • 37% White European
      • 60% Catholic
      • 30% Protestant
  • Fiji
    • 2 Large and over 100 smaller islands
    • Population of over 900,000
      • 54.8% Fijian
      • 37.4% Indian
      • 53% Christian
      • 34% Hindu
      • 7% Muslim
    • Civilian Governments alternate with military coups
      • Large military force

Micronesia
  • Includes more than 2,000 islands
  • More low-lying islands than in Melanesia
  • Largely a U.S. Trust area until the mid-1980’s
  • Guam is Micronesia’s largest island with 210 square miles
    • United States Territory – strategic military installation
    • Population of over 170,000
      • 85% Roman Catholic
    • Economy focused on tourism
  • Marshall Islands are a Republic in “Free Association” with the U.S.
    • Independence in 1986
    • Site of 66 nuclear weapons tests by the United States
      • Still dealing with compensation claims for damages from tests
    • Population about 62,000
      • 98% Christian
      • 55% Protestant
  • Northern Mariana Islands are a commonwealth in “Political Union” with the U.S.
    • Became a formal territory of the U.S. in 1978
    • Population of about 85,000
      • 56.3% Asian
      • 36.3% Pacific Islander
      • Multi-Lingual region
      • Mainly Christian
      • Economy based around off-shore U.S. industries (mainly garment)
  • Nauru is one of the region’s highest income societies with per capita incomes around $11,500
    • Gained independence in 1968 – World’s smallest independent republic
    • Strong ties to Australia
    • Major ecological damage due to Phosphate mining (90% of the island)
    • Population around 13,500
      • 58% Nauran
      • Christian

Polynesia
  • Includes both high volcanic islands and low coral atolls
  • Hawaiian Islands
    • 50th U.S. State in 1959
    • First settled by Polynesians between 300 and 1000 C.E.
    • Discovered by James Cooke in 1778
    • Overthrow of the monarchy in 1896
    • U.S. Territory in 1898
    • Population of just under 1.4 million
      • 80% of the population lives on Oahu
    • Bi-lingual State – Hawaiian and English
    • Economy based around tourism and a plantation system
  • Tonga
    • Full Independent in 1970
      • A British Protectorate
    • Constitutional Monarchy
    • Population of about 117,000
  • Tuvalu and Kiribati
    • Independent in 1978 (from Britain)
    • Population
      • Kiribati – about 106,000
      • Tuvalu – about 12,000
      • Mix of many of the South Pacific ethnic groups
  • Tahiti
    • Developing along the Hawaii Model?
    • Economy focused on Tourism (Bora Bora)
    • Population of almost 280,000
      • 78% Polynesian
      • 10% European – French
      • 12% Chinese
    • French colony
      • Site of French nuclear testing

High IslandLow Island Dichotomy

High Islands
  • Volcanic
  • High-elevation/Rugged Relief
  • Well Watered
  • Good Soils
  • Agricultural Diversity
  • Tend to have larger populations
Low Islands
  • The majority of the realm’s islands
  • Composed of coral
  • Low-elevation/Relief
  • Drought is common (dependence on rain water)
  • Fishing and Coconut palm are mainstays of the economy

Antarctica
  • Ice-Covered continent
  • 5.5 million square miles
  • Few outposts of humanity
    • McMurdo Station
  • Ross Ice Shelf
  • Multiple claims – claims are not “explicitly” recognized by any state
    • Argentina
    • Australia
    • Chile
    • France
    • New Zealand
    • Norway
    • United Kingdom
  • The Antarctic Treaty (1961) (http://www.ats.aq/uploaded/treaty_original.pdf)
    • Regulate international relations on the continent
    • Established freedom of scientific investigation
    • Banned military activity on that continent
Articles of the Antarctic Treaty

· Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose;

· Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue;

· Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the United Nations and other international agencies;

· Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial sovereignty claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force;

· Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes;

· Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south;

· Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given;

· Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states;

· Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations;

· Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty;

· Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the International Court of Justice;

· Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations.

Saturday, July 29, 2006

1303 Chapter 11 - Austral Realm

Biogeography
  • The spatial arraignment of flora and fauna
  • The study of species distribution and the processes which lead to that distribution
  • Two sub-fields
    • Phytogeography – plants
    • Zoogeography – animals
  • Friedrich Wilhelm Heinrich Alexander Freiherr von Humboldt (1769-1859)
    • German – recognized as founder of the discipline
    • Renaissance man – scientist, diplomat, explorer
  • Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)
    • British - naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist
    • Co-creator of Evolution
    • Wallace’s Line
  • The Austral Realm serves as a Biogeography Laboratory
  • Wallace’s Line
    • Fairly sharp division between species found on the Asian mainland and species found in the Austral Realm
    • Marsupials and non-marsupials…
  • Challenged by others – Max Weber and Weber’s Line

Marine Geography and discussions (from Ch 12)
  • A sub-field of geography concerned with the spatial arrangement of the seas, its resources, and maritime boundaries
  • Key Terms
    • Territorial Sea (12 mile limit)
    • Exclusive Economic Zone (200 miles)
    • High Seas
    • Median Line Boundaries
    • Continental Shelf
Maritime Boundaries

Provide security for a nation

Control of trade and commerce

Customs Regulations

Enforce quarantines

Enforce claims of neutrality

UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982 – Ratified 1994
  • Territorial Sea
    • 12 nautical miles
    • Exclusive sovereignty
    • Exclusive fishing rights
  • Contiguous Zone
    • 24 nautical miles
    • Limited sovereignty
    • Enforce customs, immigration, and sanitation laws
  • Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
    • 200 nautical miles (350 within a continental shelf)
    • Exclusive rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage resources on the seabed and waters
  • High Seas
    • Beyond the EEZ
    • Outside any national jurisdiction (Freedom of the High Seas)
    • Right to access, use, and explore to all
    • Resources are considered part of the Common Heritage of Humanity
  • Median Line Boundaries
    • When less than 24 ocean miles separate states
    • Lines equidistant from opposite shores
    • Used also for EEZ when states are closer than 200 miles

Austral Region - Major Geographic Qualities
  • Australia has vast, dry, low relief
  • New Zealand is a land of mountains
  • Peripheral development and demographics
  • Highly urbanized populations
  • Immigration and indigenous activism
  • Export of basic products (agriculture and mining)
    • Central suppliers of raw materials to the Pacific Rim
Australia
  • A continent in its own right
  • Former British colony
    • Formally declared in 1770
    • Federated State since 1901
  • Population of 20.5 million
    • 92% Anglo-European
    • 7% Asian
    • 1% +/- Indigenous
    • 67% Christian
  • 91% Urbanized
    • Sydney
    • Melbourne
    • Perth
  • Strong and growing economy
    • Core areas on the Southeast coast and around Perth
  • Canberra as a Forward Capital
  • The Outback
    • Extensive grasslands and pasture
    • One of the world’s largest cattle and sheep industries
    • A fragile environment, water scarcity
    • Ownership issues
    • Rich in mineral resources
  • Concepts of Distance and Remoteness
    • The Tyranny of Distance
  • Post Colonial Economy
    • Export of Raw Materials
    • Based primarily on Primary Sector Activities
    • Dependent upon world markets
    • Import-Substitution Industries
      • Developed to provide goods to remote areas when transportation costs are too expensive to import the goods
      • Spur to local industrialization and protectionism
    • Small/Limited Domestic Markets
    • Limited Ties to the Asian Tigers
  • Ecological Damage and Threats
  • Aboriginal Issues
    • Population dates to around 40,000 years ago
    • Centered around resistance to mining and other exploitation of native lands
    • 1993 Native Title Bill
      • Perhaps as much as 78% of the continent
    • Re-schooling and paternalistic attitudes
  • Immigration
    • Until the 1970’s Australia was 95% Anglo-Irish
    • Today only 1/3rd is Anglo
    • Massive immigration from Asian nations
    • Unsteady shift to multi-cultural nation

New Zealand
  • Two Separate Islands
    • North Island
    • South Island
  • Former British Colony
  • First settled around 800 CE by Maori tribal peoples
  • Population of 4.1 million
    • 70% Anglo-European
    • 8% Maori
    • 6% Asian
    • 4.5% Pacific Islander
    • 52+% Christian
  • 78% Urbanized
    • Focused on the lowland, peripheral areas of the islands
  • Pastoral Economy
    • Small/limited internal markets
  • Rich in natural resources
    • Concepts of distance and remoteness
  • General excellent quality of life

Friday, July 28, 2006

1303 Chapter 10 - Southeast Asia

Theory and Discussion of State development and Boundaries

Friedrich Ratzel

The Organic State

“The state is better understood as a 'natural' rather than a 'mechanical' phenomenon, with different institutions performing different functions, and the good health of the whole being attributable as much to the good working of the whole as to the contribution of any particular part.”

Major factor in the rise of environmental determinism.

Environmental Determinism
  • The belief that the physical environment by itself shapes humans, their actions, and their thoughts.
  • Central Geographic Paradigm up until the 1940’s
  • Humans operate under a stimulus-response relationship with the environment
  • Used to explain and maintain European/Western cultural and physical dominance
  • Ellen Churchill Semple – central U.S. proponent of this theory (early 1900’s)
  • Underlay the justifications used by the Nazi’s for their genocidal practices

National Geo-Political Systems
  • State
    • An independent political unit occupying a defined territory and having full sovereign control over its internal and foreign affairs.
    • Does not include colonies or protectorates
    • Doe not actually include Anocracies – Iraq, Sudan, Afghanistan, etc…
  • Country
    • Same as state
  • Nation
    • A community of people with a common culture and territory, bound together by a strong sense of unity arising from shared beliefs and customs.
  • Nation-State
    • European invention
    • Where a nation corresponds to a state
  • Bi-national or Multinational State
    • States which contain more than one nation
    • Empires
  • Part-nation State (Irredentism)
    • A single nation predominant in and dispersed across two or more states
    • Greater Serbia or Greater Germany, Arab Nation
  • Stateless Nation
    • A people without a state
    • Amerindian Tribes, the Kurds, Basques, Palestinians
Geographic Characteristics of States
  • Size
    • Mini-states – states with very small land areas and, generally, less than one million people
    • Lichtenstein, Luxemburg, island states of the Pacific
  • Shape
    • Compact States
      • Roughly circular states
      • Maximum amount of territory within a minimum length of boundary
    • Protruded/Prorupt States
      • Compact but with one or more narrow extension of territory
      • Myanmar, Thailand
    • Elongated States
      • Long and narrow states
      • Chile, Vietnam, Italy
      • Diversity of climate and peoples
    • Fragmented States
      • States with territory separated from the rest, as on islands
      • Indonesia, Philippines, United States
      • Issues of control and centralization
    • Enclave
      • Territory of one state is located within another state (form of fragmentation)
      • Angola, West Berlin
    • Perforated State
      • A state which surrounds an area which it does not rule
      • South Africa (Lesotho), Italy (Vatican City)
Boundaries
  • Contracts between States
  • Definition
    • Elaborate description of the boundary, usually in a treaty
  • Delimitation
    • The drawing of the border on a map
  • Demarcation
    • Physical boundary located on the ground at the delimitated border
International Boundaries
  • Lines that establish the limit of each state’s jurisdiction and authority
  • Where the sovereignty of one state ends and another begins
Frontier Zones
  • Ill-defined and fluctuating zones marking the edge of a state’s authority
  • Modern state boundaries generally eliminate frontier zones
Natural/Physiographic Boundaries
  • Based on recognizable physiographic features
    • Mountain chains
    • Rivers
    • Coastlines

Anthropo-geographic Boundaries

  • A boundary which coincides with breaks or transitions in the cultural landscape
    • Such as those formed between nations
    • European states
Artificial or Geometric Boundaries
  • A boundary without an obvious physical or geographic boundary
  • Often a parallel of latitude or meridian of longitude
  • Boundaries created by colonial powers in Africa and Southwest Asia

Genetic Boundary Classifications

Antecedent Boundary
  • A boundary drawn before the landscape is populated and developed
    • The western boundary between the U.S. and Canada (49th Parallel)
    • 54-40 or fight…
Subsequent Boundary
  • Drawn after the development of the populated cultural landscape
  • Consequent (Ethnographic) Boundary
    • Drawn to accommodate existing linguistic, ethnic, etc., differences
    • Mason-Dixon Line
    • Generally a long process of adjustment and modification
  • Superimposed Boundary
    • Forced upon existing cultural landscapes, a country, or a people by a conquering or colonizing power.
    • Africa and the United States
Relic Boundary
  • A former boundary line that no longer functions as such and is still marked by some landscape features on differences on the two sides
    • Berlin Wall
    • Hadrian’s Wall

Southeast Asia

Major Geographic Qualities
  • Fragmented Physiography of islands and peninsulas, dominated by high relief, tropical climates, tectonic plate intersections, earthquake and volcanic activity (Ring of Fire) – Krakatau and 2004 Tsunami
  • Fragmented Political Geography – quasi-Shatter Belt, increasing presence of Anocracy and instability
  • Population focused on Indonesia and the Philippines
  • Fragmented political, linguistic, religious, and cultural histories
  • Colonial legacies from Europe and Asia (mainly China)
Regions of the Realm - Mainland
  • Vietnam
    • Previously divided between north and south
  • Cambodia
    • Formerly French Indo-China
  • Laos
    • Formerly French Indo-China
  • Thailand
  • Myanmar
    • Formerly Burma
Geographic Qualities of the Mainland
  • Five states
  • Dominated by Buddhism
  • Multicultural and Multiethnic region
  • One of the least urbanized areas of the world
  • Multiple core areas

Vietnam
  • Population of 85.2 million
    • Population has doubled since 1975
    • 86.2% ethnic Vietnamese
    • 9.3% Buddhist
    • 80% no religious affiliation
  • Portion of French Indochina – 1887
    • Divided into three colonial districts
    • French Defeated in 1954
  • U.S. involvement in the 1960’s
    • Defeat of U.S. and South Vietnam in 1975
  • Elongated country
    • Bi-polar division between Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon)
    • Both considered Core Areas
    • Ho Chi Minh City is the central market center of the state
  • Government similar to Chinese but maintaining more control over economy
  • Shift to a Socialist Market State

Cambodia
  • Classic Compact State
  • Population of 14 million
    • 90% Khmer
    • 5% Vietnamese
    • 95% Buddhist
  • Golden Age of the Angkor Empire (1000 – 1300 CE)
  • Portion of French Indochina – 1887
    • Independence in 1953
  • American involvement in 1970
    • Beginning of Civil War
  • Khmer Rouge Rule 1975 – 1978
    • Between one and two million people killed
    • Massive anti-urban, anti-intellectual campaign
    • Genocide
  • Vietnam invasion in 1978
  • Installation of democratic government in 1993
  • Capital of Phnom PenhClassic Primate City

Laos
  • Former French Indochina
    • Independence in 1949
  • Population of 6.5 million
    • 68% Lao Loum
    • 60% Buddhist
    • 19% Urbanized
  • Undeveloped
    • No railroads
    • Few good roads
    • Little industry
  • Interference by Western Powers
    • Drug Trade – The Golden Triangle
    • Resettlement and death for many of the hill peoples
    • Ethnic Cleansing?

Thailand
  • Formerly Siam
  • A Protruded/Prorupt state
  • Population of 65 million
    • 75% Thai
    • 14% ethnic Chinese
    • 94.6% Buddhist
    • 4.6% Muslim
      • Concentrated in the southern regions
  • The economy is stronger than all of the other mainland states combined
    • Strong workforce
    • Varied economy
  • Only SE Asian nation not controlled by colonial powers
  • Ethnic instability and unrest in the southern portions of the state
  • Capital of Bangkok is a classic Primate city
  • Overthrow of monarchy in 1932
  • Constitutional democracy until 2006
    • Military coup
  • Rising corruption
  • AIDS/HIV a growing crisis

Myanmar
  • Also known as Burma
  • A second Protruded State
  • Population of 47 million
    • 68% Burmese
    • Many other ethnicities present
    • 89% Buddhist
  • History of independent kingdoms
    • Finally conquered by the British in 1886
    • Front lines during WWII
    • Independence in 1948
    • Military coup in 1962
  • Rapacious and oppressive Military Junta
  • Poorest state in SE Asia and one of the poorest in the World
    • Despite rich agricultural lands
    • Newfound oil and gas reserves
  • Minorities oppressed and ignored by the ruling junta

Insular Southeast Asia
  • Sub-realm of islands and peninsulas
  • Fragmented political and cultural entities
  • Multi-cultural and multi-ethnic
  • Colonial legacy
  • Islam dominant

Malaysia

· A Fragmented State

· Population of 25 million

o 50% Malay

o 24% Chinese

o 7% Indian

o 11% other indigenous

o Population concentrated on the mainland

o No single dominant religion although Islam is strongest

· British Colony

o Independence in 1957

o Malaysia formed in 1963

o Secession of Singapore in 1965

o Conflict with Indonesia on Borneo

· Strong, growing, and diversified economy

o Mainland Malaysia is the industrial and technological center

o Malaysian Borneo rich in natural resources

Brunei

· Sultanate

o Defeated Spanish

o British Protectorate – maintained royal family in power

o Independence in 1984

· Population of almost 400,000

o 67% Malay

o 15% Chinese

o 6% Indigenous

o 67% Muslim

o 13% Buddhist

· Very similar to a Gulf State Sultanate

· Extensive oil and gas reserves

o Highest GDP in SE Asia

Singapore

· Independent City State

· Founded as a British trading port

· Population of 4.5 million

o 77% Chinese

o 14% Malay

o 8% Indian

o 43% Buddhist

o 15% Muslim

· Some of the highest population densities in the world

· Serves as an Entrepôt for much of SE Asia

· Economy focused on trade and high tech industries

· Parliamentary Democracy – Authoritarian tendencies

Indonesia

· World’s most expansive Archipelago (fragmented state – 1300 islands)

o Four major islands plus Papua

§ Java – Core Area

§ Sumatra

§ Kalimantan

§ Sulawesi

o Physiography dominated by volcanoes

· World’s fourth most populous state – 235 million

o 45% Javanese

o 14% Sundanese

o 7.5% Madurese

o 7.5% Malay

o 88% Muslim

o 8% Christian

· Largest Muslim nation in the world

· Former Dutch Colony

o Independence in 1945/1949

· Newly democratic

· Capital at Jakarta

Philippines

· Fragmented State – islands

o 7000+

o Three main groups

§ Luzon-Mindoro (north)

§ Visayan (central)

§ Mindanao (south)

· Population of 91 million

o 28% Tagalong

o Very ethnically diverse

o 81% Roman Catholic

§ 7% Other Christian

o 5% Muslim

· Former Spanish then American Colony

o Commonwealth in 1935

o Independence in 1946

· Capital of ManilaClassic Primate City

· Insurgencies

o Muslim in the South

o Communist in central and north

o Pirates