Geography 1303
Chapter 3 –
- The second and third largest states (by area) in the world
- Heavily industrialized societies
- Shrinking and aging industry
- Aging infrastructure
- Largest trade is with each other
- Shifting toward Post-Industrial Economies
- Federal States with pluralistic societies
- Low population densities by international standards
- Highly urbanized and mobile populations
- Generally Christian Societies
- 76% Christian
- 70% Christian
- Constructed on the European Model
- Federated Governments
- Architecture
- Diet
- Arts
- Generally divided into well defined, homogeneous regions
- North-South orientation of mountain ranges allows entrance of polar and tropical air to the interior.
- Continental Climate Patterns over most of the continent
- Western Rain Shadow
- Arid western/central continent
- Humid east/southeast
- Dominated by two major drainage systems
- The Great Lakes and the
- Best inland waterway system/transportation network in the world
- Fall Line Cities
- Cities built at the limit of tidewater navigation
- Many on the East Coast as well as
- Continent first settled around 18,000 years ago
- Three major migrations from
- Minor migration from
- Called Pre-Clovis Peoples
- Some of the earliest dates come from
- Approximately 13,000 bp
- Based on the form of spear/javelin points they produced
- Appears to be based on the European Solutrean traditions
- Found throughout the
- Not Mammoth hunters…
- Mississippian Tradition and Adena-Hopewell Tradition
- Approximately 900 – 1500 CE
- Centered on the American Bottoms area of the
- Cahokia and modern day
- Maize Agriculture and hunting
- Sedentary or semi-sedentary
- Platform mounds
- Burial (Adena-Hopewell)
- Living and Ruling (Mississippian)
- Long-distance trade networks
- High degrees of social inequality
- Anasazi or (Ancient)
- Began around 3200 BCE
- 900 – 1130 CE is central time period
- Four-Corners Region; Southwest Arizona;
- Centered on Maize agriculture and hunting
- Fortified Villages
- Long-distance trade and domination networks
- Ball Courts and Mesoamerican trade items
- High degrees of social inequality
- Collapse and reorganization by 1350 CE
- Drought and Warfare
- Cannibalism as terror tactic
- Indigenous peoples at European Contact
- Iroquois Confederation
- Agriculture and Hunting
- Confederation of Five and then Six Tribes
- Democratic style of leadership
- Male and Female leaders
- Important source of inspiration for early American democracy
- Dakota Peoples (Sioux)
- Horse Culture
- Arose after Spanish arrival
- Movement onto the
- Halted westward expansion for several years
- Navajo
- Migrated from
- Athabascan Speaking
- Based around sheep and horses
- Arose after Spanish arrival in the SW
- Largest surviving tribe in the
- Christopher Columbus
- 1492
- Beginning of Spanish influence in the
- Focused on the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, and
- Treaty of Tordesillas – 1494
- Divided the
- First English Settlements
- Along the
- Dominated by disasters and poor planning
- Starvation
- Hostile relations with Native Americans
- Lack of profitable exports before tobacco
- Introduction of Slavery into
- Focus on colonization
- French and Russians
- Mainly in the northern latitudes
- French colonization of the
- Focus on the Fur Trade and containment of other European Powers
- A change in permanent residential location and activity space
- Intercontinental and Interregional
- Can generally be seen as people moving from a home area to a completely different nation and continent
- European migration to the
- Intraregional
- Migration within a region – generally within a nation or state
- Relocation for jobs within a country
- Three Factors of the Migration Decision
- Perceived degree of difference betweens the source and destination
- The effectiveness of information/propaganda about the destination
- Distance between source and destination
- Forced or Involuntary migration
- People are forced to move without their consent
- Reluctant migration
- When people have a choice but not a desire to move
- Voluntary migration
- When people make a positive choice to move
- Push Factors
- Negative conditions at origin
- Pull Factors
- Positive attractions of destination
- Economic Factors
- Single most important incentive
- Political Factors
- War, government oppression
- Cultural Factors
- Generally only affect direction of migration/determine end point
- Amenities
- Similar to cultural variables, importance increases with immigrant’s wealth and status
- The value that an individual puts on a given residential site
- Social, economic, and environmental perceptions
- Step Migration
- An eventual long-distance migration taken in smaller increments
- Chain Migration
- Sustained migration as subsequent migrants follow earlier migrants
- Rural to Urban Migration
- Urbanization
- Physical barriers
- Natural barriers
- Manmade barriers
- Economic barriers
- Cost to travel
- Cost to establish new residence
- Cost to maintain contact with old residence
- Cultural barriers
- Similarities and differences between home and new culture
- Political barriers
- Government restrictions on out and in migration and travel
- Migration Field
- An area that dominates a locals in- and out- migration patterns.
- Tend to be large nations/states and large urban areas
- Channelized Migration
- The tendency for migration to flow between areas that are socially and economically allied by past migration patterns, economic trade considerations, or by some other affinity (Chain Migration)
- Return or Counter-migration
- The return of migrants to their points of origin or elsewhere
- Hierarchical Migration
- The tendency for migrants to move from a smaller to a larger site
- Urbanization
- Effects of Post-Industrial Societies on direction
- Most migrants only go a short distance
- Longer distance migration favors big-city destinations.
- Large cities are migrant magnets.
- Most migration proceeds step by step.
- Most migration is rural to urban.
- Each migration flow produces a counterflow.
- Most migrants are adults; families are less likely to make international moves.
- Most international migrants are young males.
- Nations with long and/or open borders are attractive to migrants
- Beginning around 1870 through 1920
- Macroscale
- System of new cities arise in core areas
- Specialize in industrial manufacture
- Linked by rail lines and water transport
- Microscale
- Structure of cities developed around their industrial roll
Models of US Urbanization
- Devised from Adams and Vance
- Generalization of the growth of the U.S. Urban System
- Based on key changes in energy and transportation technology (generalized from the
- Five stage evolutionary process
- Sail-wagon epoch
- Primitive overland and water transport
- Focused on the Northeastern Ports
- Trade with
- Iron-horse epoch
- Early railroads and national transportation system
- Steel rail epoch
- The Industrial Revolution
- Improved rail transport
- Auto-Air-Amenity epoch
- Introduction of the automobile and air travel
- Expansion of white-collar service jobs
- Rise of the suburbs and the
- Satellite-Electric-Jet Propulsion epoch
- The final epoch favors globally-connected metropolises functioning as international gateways.
- The Early North American Core
- Generally a rectangle including southern
- Driven by advances in transportation
- Urban decentralization/expanding urban peripheries
- Atlantic Seaboard Megalopolis
- 600 mile urban corridor
- The core of
- Focused on growth within (intra-) urban areas
- Dependant upon advances in transportation technology
- A pattern of outward-areal expansion
- Four stage development
- Walking – Horse cart era
- Electric Streetcar era
- Recreational auto era
- Freeway era
- The final era pushes suburban development more than 30 miles out from the central business district and thus overturns the Primate City Model
- The single urban structure is transformed into a multi-centered model where several outlying activity centers rival the CBD.
- Intra-Urban development (micro-scale)
- Chauncy D. Harris and Edward L. Ullman – 1945
- Counters the CBD growth models
- Cities grow from by spreading from several connected nodes of growth
- Peripheral expansion lead to eventual coalescence along lines of juncture
- Developed in
- Attempt to model changes in North American urban areas since 1945
- Development of suburbia
- Supplements the previous models
- Focuses on the periphery of the city instead of the CBD
- Functions are determined by their relationships with other periphery functions and not the CBD
- Automobile
- Freeway system
- Replaced mass transit
- Allowed massive spatial expansion of urban areas
- Interstate Highway System
- Expanded urban areas/commuting zones out 20 to 30 miles
- 50 to 60 miles in
- Rise in individual home ownership
- Revolution in mortgage practices by the Federal Government
- Own free-standing home in suburbs instead of renting within the city
- Decreased work week
- More time at home
- More time to commute
- Uniform but spatially discontinuous housing developments beyond the boundaries of the older, central cities
- Unfocused sprawl since they were not tied to mass-transit routes
- Automobile
- Began in late 1940’s to early 1950’s
- Slowed during the 1970’s and resumed again in the 1980’s
- Affected by fuel prices
- Development of the Shopping Mall to provide services to suburban communities
- Relocation of industry to suburban locations
- Follow workforce
- Use of roads meant less dependence upon rail and water transportation
- Flexible truck transportation
- Service industries follow Base Sector
- Edge Cities (Joel Garreau)
- Development of Suburbs into smaller, independent urban areas surrounding the old city and CBD.
- It must have more than five million square feet (465,000 m²) of office space. This is enough to house between 20,000 and 50,000 office workers, as many as some traditional downtowns.
- It must have more than 600,000 square feet (56,000 m²) of retail space, the size of a medium shopping mall. This ensures that the edge city is a center of recreation and commerce as well as office work.
- It must be characterized by more jobs than bedrooms.
- It must be perceived by the population as one place.
- It must have been nothing like a city in 1960.
- Houston Edge Cities
- The FM 1960 Area
- Kingwood
- The Woodlands
- Uptown
- Westchase
- Greenspoint
- Sharpstown
- Shaped by the immigrant experience
- Originally focused no assimilation into the Anglo-Saxon memes
- Becoming more fragmented in the Post-Industrial landscape
- Ethnic balkanization or Social Fragmentation
- Ethnicity
- National ancestry
- Plays a key roll in US Geography
- Euro-Americans (whites) will be less than 50% of the population by 2050
- Already the case in
- Latino/Hispanic is the largest Ethnicity in the
- Mosaic Culture
- Increasingly heterogeneous complex of separate groups
- Form along ethnic, racial, economic, age, occupation, and lifestyle
- How people earn their living, how livelihood systems vary by area, and how economic activities are spatially interrelated and linked.
- The study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities across the Earth
- Categories of Activity
- Based on increasing complexity and distance from primary subsistence activities
- Primary Activities (2%)
- Harvesting or extracting something from the earth
- Hunting and Gathering, agriculture, mining, fishing, etc…
- Secondary Activities (Form Utility) (15%)
- Those activities which add value to goods (and services) by changing their form or combining them into other commodities
- Manufacturing and processing industries as well as the energy and construction industries
- Tertiary Activities (18%)
- Specializations which provide goods and services to the community and the individual
- Middlepersons between the producer and the consumer
- Quaternary Activities (55%)
- The processing and dissemination of information
- The administration and control the previous levels (management)
- Quinary Activities (10%)
- High level decision-making in large organizations
- Multi-national corporations and large governments
- The basis for American industrialization
- Fossil Fuels
- Oil
- Natural Gas
- Coal
- Coal had a major impact on the location and growth of early industrial urban areas in the
- Primary Activity
- Vast expanses of the American landscape are dominated by agriculture
- Shift from small family farms to large mechanized/industrial farms
- Only about 1.5% of the
- Can be modeled using a modified Van Thünen Rings model
- Core areas are the industrial cores
- Especially the North East and
- Primary Activity
- Access to the Megalopolis market in the East and then the West
- Proximity to industrial resources
- Coal
- Iron ore
- Economies of Scale
- Savings accruing from large-scale production
- Mechanization
- Assembly lines
- Specialization
- Purchases of raw materials in bulk
- Based on the best combination of the Variable Costs
- The costs involved in transportation, labor, production, land, etc…
- Measured against the profit of the item being produced
- Weberian Analysis (early 1900’s)
- Transportation Costs
- Based on a formula for determining the cost of the transportation relative to the raw materials and the finished product
- Material-oriented (weight loosing) Industry – where the product weighs less than the raw material
- Located close to source of raw material
- Market-oriented (weight gaining) Industry – where the product weighs more than the raw material
- Located close to the market for the product
- Labor Costs
- Unskilled labor
- Common – can be found anywhere
- Skilled (Deskilled) labor
- Limited resource – generally found in clusters
- Agglomeration Costs
- Clustering of productive activities and people
- The trend of supporting activities to cluster together to reduce transportation costs and increase access to people
- Too much competition or over taxation lead to deglomeration
- Substitution Principle
- The concept of offsetting (substituting) a high cost activity with a low cost one (i.e. accept higher transportation costs to acquire low labor and agglomeration costs…)
- Increases the places where industry may be profitably located
- Spatial Margin of Profitability
- Expands the substitution principle to create areas where industry can be located.
- Water transportation is cheapest form of transport
- Railways and highways increase attractiveness of inland points
- Footloose Activity
- Where transportation is not a relevant variable
- Ubiquitous Industries
- Inseparable from markets and widely distributed
- Highly perishable commodities for immediate consumption
- High-Tech, white-collar, office based activities
- Relatively Footloose
- Technopoles
- Planned techno-industrial complexes
- Low density, ultra-modern buildings
- Based on the internet and other modern communications advances
- Access to highly skilled labor
- Urban Areas
- World Class Research Universities
- 300 days of sunshine per year
- Recreational water within 1 hour drive
- Affordable housing
- Start up capital ($1 billion)
- Low risk environment
- Tax breaks
- Cooperative state & local governments
- Lenders
- Businesses
- Model of Urban Spatial Changes (Interurban Model)
- Cities as points of a network which interact with one another and serve the hinterland – an Interurban Model
- Three Stages
· Frontier-Staples era
o Shift from a mercantile economy to one oriented by staples (for export)
o Growth of an Industrial Heartland
· Era of Industrial Capitalism
o Increase in manufacturing and tertiary sectors of the economy
o Increase in urbanization
o Beginning of corporate globalization and connections
· Era of Global Capitalism
o Rise in foreign investment
o Movement toward a Post-Industrial Economy (traditional industry is eclipsed by a higher-technology productive complex dominated by services, information-related, and managerial activities)
o Population is majority urban (77%)
- The inhabitable zone of permanent settlement
- From the ancient Greeks who used it to define the regions inhabited by humans
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